Chasing the Northern Lights in Norway

Few natural phenomena have the power to beguile quite like the aurora borealis and no-one ever forgets their first experience of watching what could just be the greatest show on earth.

What’s it Like?

As elusive as they are mysterious, these shape-shifters of the Arctic night sky quickly take on the quality of a fairytale. One moment, the ethereal white or green curtains of light with a streak of violet take on forms that evoke the ancient mythology of the north – a palace of lights, a Sámi fire in the wilderness, the prow of a Viking ship. Then they dissolve into nothing, only to form as if by stealth on a different horizon, dancing across the sky in the shape of sea horse or crescent moon.

Pin this imageNorthern Lights in Tromsø, Norway. Image by Andi Gentsch / CC BY-SA 2.0

There are, of course, an infinite variety of forms, colours and intensities that the aurora can take on. Sometimes they show up in all their glory, a rainbow spectrum of deep blues, indigos and greens. On other occasions, the effect is more subtle, taking on the appearance of an eerie white-grey, transparent cloud shadow that drifts across the sky, refusing to take on recognisable form, then disappearing on the wind against a palette of stars. And there are times when it refuses to show up at all.

‘Aurora is a diva with mood swings,’ is how Knut Hansvold, a native of Tromsø in northern Norway and a veteran northern-lights watcher, explains it. ‘You never know when she’s in a good mood. You have to devote all of your time and attention to her. She expects that and, if you do, she might be tempted. But when she shows up, she is the most unforgettable of beautiful ladies.’

Why does it happen?

The aurora borealis occurs when storms on the sun hurl charged solar particles out into space. When these particles collide with the earth’s atmosphere, they unleash a reaction within the nitrogen and oxygen atoms high above the earth.

That reaction is at once simple and devilishly complicated, depending on your level of scientific understanding. In simple terms, the nucleus of any given atom is surrounded by an orbiting cloud of electrons. When the sun’s particles crash into the atoms, this sends the electrons into higher-energy orbits, away from the atom’s nucleus. When the electrons move back to their usual lower-energy orbits, they release a particle of light known as a photon.

In the case of the aurora, the different colours come from the different gases – particles interacting with oxygen create a yellow or green aurora (although interaction with higher-altitude oxygen can produce all-red shows). Nitrogen is more often associated with blue or purple lights dancing across the sky.

Myths & Legends

The aurora borealis must have been a profoundly unsettling experience in the pre-scientific age and it should come as no real surprise that history is filled with supernatural explanations for the lights. Indeed, the very name ‘aurora’ carries with it the whiff of legend – the word means ‘sunrise’ in Latin, but it also refers to the Roman goddess of dawn.

Later, among traditional peoples, explanations focused on deeply held religious beliefs. Some Inuit believed that the spirits of their ancestors could be discerned in the auroral night sky. In Old Norse mythology, during the time of the Vikings, the aurora represented a fire bridge to the sky built by the gods. Fire featured in later explanations. The southern phenomenon, the aurora australis, was, in one version, believed by Australia’s Aborigines to be bushfires in the spirit world. Back in the north, one Norwegian chronicler explained the phenomenon as either an ocean surrounded by vast fires or the release of energy that turns glaciers fluorescent. Yet another ancient Norse legend held that the lights flickered out from the armour of warlike virgins riding horses across the sky.

A further recurring theme, particularly in medieval Europe, was the belief that the lights were omens or signs from God. The unusual appearance of the aurora on a Virginia battlefield during the American Civil War was interpreted by both sides as a portent of impending victory.

More poetically, one Native American people, the Cree, describe the lights as the ‘Dance of the Spirits’.

Where to see them in Norway

The northern lights can turn up at lower latitudes during years of unusual solar activity. However, most places in Norway north of the Arctic Circle offer the chance to witness the aurora in the night sky from October to March; you’ve a better chance of cloudless skies from December onwards.

The most important element for seeing the aurora borealis, apart from a large slice of luck, is a cloud-free sky – if the cloud cover shows no signs of clearing, you might as well head indoors. Although visitors and residents alike report spectacular light shows in cities such as Tromsø (which is connected to the rest of Norway and further afield by regular flights), another important ingredient for getting the full effect is the absence of artificial or human-produced light. And some experienced aurora-watchers will tell you that, statistically speaking, 6pm to midnight or, even more specifically, from 10pm to 11pm, are the optimum viewing times.

Another important consideration, especially if you plan to photograph the lights, is the backdrop. Seeing the lights surrounded by mountains may mean that you miss half the show – an open horizon (such as the ocean, or the vast plains of the Finnmarksvidda plateau around Kautokeino or Karasjok) is ideal. Open water, particularly a still lake (finding such a lake that’s not frozen in northern Norway can be tricky) can make for some wonderful reflections.

Then again, rules are made to be broken - watching the lights swirl amid the craggy peaks of the Lofoten Islands, or above Tromsø’s Arctic Cathedral or Alta’s Northern Lights Cathedral are the kind of experiences that will live long in the memory.

Useful Resources

UNIS (kho.unis.no/Forecast.htm) Real-time, English-language forecasts from Norwegian sources

Service Aurora (aurora-service.eu/aurora-forecast/) Regularly updated forecasts for Scandinavia

Space Weather (spaceweather.com) Global predictions about upcoming auroras

Anthony Ham fell in love with Norway the first time he laid eyes on her and there aren’t many places in Norway he hasn’t been, from Lindesnes in the south to the remote fjords of Svalbard in the far north. His true passion is the Arctic north whether dog-sledding and spending time with the Sami around Karasjok or drawing near to glaciers and sco

Edvard Grieg Museum Norway

Composer Edvard Grieg and his wife Nina Hagerup spent summers at this charming Swiss-style wooden villa from 1885 until Grieg's death in 1907. Surrounded by fragrant, tumbling gardens and occupying a semi-rural setting on a peninsula by coastal Nordåsvatnet lake, south of Bergen, it's a truly lovely place to visit. Apart from the Grieg's original home, there is a modern exhibition centre, a 200-seat concert hall and perhaps the most compelling feature of them all, a tiny, lake-side Composer's Hut .

Here the composer was always guaranteed silence, if not his muse.

From June to mid-September, there is a daily bus tour (adult/child/student & senior Nkr250/100/200) departing from the tourist office at 11.30am that includes transport, entrance and a short piano concert; it’s wise to pre-purchase tickets. Also see the website or visit the tourist office for details of summer recitals; there is a free shuttle bus for evening performances. The best public transport access is via a city centre tram to Nesttun (two-hour ticket Nkr36), alighting at the stop ‘Hop’; from there it’s a 20-minute signed walk.

Belocrkvanska Jezera

Not far from Bela Crkva, in the southeastern part of Vojvodina, in the Banat district, there are 7 artificial lakes, including the Glavno, Vračevgajsko, Šaransko and Šljunkara. These were formed by the excavation of gravel from the former bed of the Pannonian Sea. The pebbly and sandy shores give the lake waters beautifully clear. The lakes and their surroundings are ideal for leisure and daytrips.

They are teeming with fish (such as grass carp, perch, carp and catfish), presenting a real treat for anglers. The best known lake is the Glavno or Gradsko Jezero, which has a waterpolo area, diving boards, showers and a campsite. The beach is partially paved, but all the other lakes have completely natural beaches. This lake is a venue for summer swimming, diving and sailing schools. An important asset is the pure, clear water, rarely to be found elsewhere. Besides the lakes, bathing is also possible on the rivers Nera and Karaš, with the waters of the Danube and the Danube-Tisa-Danube canal rounding off the experience in this unique natural environment.

The Danube in Serbia

The Danube is the most important European river and comprises Pan-European transport corridor VII. It is an integral part of the Rhine-Main-Danube system, whose 3505 km of waterways connect the Atlantic to the Black Sea, Western Europe to Eastern Europe.

The Danube has a long history as an importantinternational waterway. For a long time it formed the northeastern boundary of the Roman Empire. Today it flows through or forms the border of ten countries: Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Moldova and Ukraine. The Danube originates as the Breg and Brigach rivers which rise in the Black Forest mountains, flowing into the Black Sea in Romania. With a 2783 km course it is the second-longest European river (after the 3692 km-long Volga), and the 27^th largest in the world, the 32^nd largest counting its basin. The Danube forms a delta 5,500 km² in area where it flows into the Black Sea, with three major distributaries.

Along its 588 km course through Serbia, the Danube extends from the meeting of the Serbian, Hungarian and Croatian borders to its confluence with the Timok where the borders of Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania meet. It passes through the picturesque Vojvodina flatlands and the national parks of the Fruška Gora and Đerdap. Besides its natural wealth, there are many sites of cultural and historical value spread out along its banks. Its main tributaries in Serbia are the rivers Tisa, Sava, Tamiš, Morava, Nera and Timok.

The Danube is the most popular river in the world for river cruises, and is a major asset of Serbia’s tourism industry, with Serbia’s two largest urban centres – Belgrade and Novi Sad – located on its banks.

The Dunav-Tisa-Dunav canal is a unified system of canals built to defend against flooding, for irrigation of land, for navigation, for tourism and for hunting and fishing. The canal system extends across some 12,700 km² between the Danube and the Tisa rivers in the Bačka and Banat districts of Vojvodine. The total length of the canals is 929 km, of which 664 km are navigable. The canal system includes 14 docks where cargo can be loaded and unloaded.

Introducing Serbia

Warm, welcoming and a hell of a lot of fun – everything you never heard about Serbia (Србија) is true. Exuding a feisty mix of élan and inat (Serbian trait of rebellious defiance), this country doesn’t do ‘mild’: Belgrade is one of the world’s wildest party destinations, the northern town of Novi Sad hosts the rocking EXIT festival, and even its hospitality is emphatic – expect to be greeted with rakija (fruit brandy) and a hearty three-kiss hello.

While political correctness is about as commonplace as a nonsmoking bar, Serbia is nevertheless a cultural crucible: the art nouveau town of Subotica revels in its proximity to Hungary, bohemian Niš echoes to the clip-clop of Roma horse carts, and minaret-studded Novi Pazar nudges some of the most sacred sites in Serbian Orthodoxy. And in the mountainous Kopaonik and Zlatibor regions, ancient traditions coexist with après-ski bling. Forget what you think you know: come and say zdravo (hello)…or better yet, živeli (cheers)!

CROATIA// ISTRIA

A large, triangular

     peninsula pointing down into the northern Adriatic, Istria (in Croatian, “Istra”) represents Croatian tourism at its most developed. In recent decades the region’s proximity to Western Europe has ensured an annual influx of sun-seeking package tourists, with Italians, Germans, Austrians and what seems like the entire population of Slovenia flocking to the mega-hotel developments that dot the coastline. Istrian beaches – often rocky areas that have been concreted over to provide sunbathers with a level surface on which to sprawl – lack the appeal of the out-of-the-way coves that you’ll find on the Dalmatian islands, yet the hotel complexes and rambling campsites have done little to detract from the essential charm of the Istrian coast, with its compact towns of alley-hugging houses grouped around spear-belfried churches. Meanwhile, inland Istria is an area of rare and disarming beauty, characterized by medieval hilltop settlements and stone-built villages.

Istria’s cultural legacy is a complex affair. Historically, Italians lived in the towns while Croats occupied the rural areas. Despite post-World War II expulsions, there’s still a fair-sized Italian community, and Italian is very much the peninsula’s second language.

With its amphitheatre and other Roman relics, the port of Pula, at the southern tip of the peninsula, is Istria’s largest city and a rewarding place to spend a couple of days; many of Istria’s most interesting spots are only a short bus ride away. On the western side of the Istrian peninsula are pretty resort towns like Rovinj and Novigrad, with their cobbled piazzas, shuttered houses and back alleys laden with laundry. Poised midway between the two, Poreč is much more of a package destination, but offers bundles of Mediterranean charm if you visit out of season. Inland Istria couldn’t be more different – historic hilltop towns like Motovun, Grožnjan, Oprtalj and Hum look like leftovers from another century, half-abandoned accretions of ancient stone poised high above rich green pastures and forests.

Some history

Istria gets its name from the Histri, an Illyrian tribe that ruled the region before succumbing to the Romans in the second century BC. The invaders left a profound mark on the area, building farms and villas, and turning Pula into a major urban centre. Slav tribes began settling the peninsula from the seventh century onwards, driving the original Romanized inhabitants of the peninsula towards the coastal towns or into the hills.

Venetians and Habsburgs

Coastal and inland Istria began to follow divergent courses as the Middle Ages progressed. The coastal towns adopted Venetian suzerainty from the thirteenth century onwards, while the rest of the peninsula came under Habsburg control. The fall of Venice in 1797 left the Austrians in charge of the whole of Istria. They confirmed Italian as the official local language, even though Croats outnumbered Italians by more than two to one. Istria received a degree of autonomy in 1861, but only the property-owning classes were allowed to vote, thereby excluding many Croats and perpetuating the Italian-speaking community’s domination of Istrian politics.

Croatians and Italians

Austrian rule ended in 1918, when Italy – already promised Istria by Britain as an inducement to enter World War I – occupied the whole peninsula. Following Mussolini’s rise to power in October 1922, the Croatian language was banished from public life, and Slav surnames were changed into their Italian equivalents. During World War II, however, opposition to fascism united Italians and Croats alike, and Tito’s Partisan movement in Istria was a genuinely multinational affair, although this didn’t prevent outbreaks of inter-ethnic violence. The atrocities committed against Croats during the Fascist period were avenged indiscriminately by the Partisans, and the foibe of Istria – limestone pits into which bodies were thrown – still evoke painful memories for Italians to this day.

After 1945 Istria became the subject of bitter wrangling between Yugoslavia and Italy, with the Yugoslavs ultimately being awarded the whole of the peninsula. Despite promising all nationalities full rights after 1945, the Yugoslav authorities actively pressured Istria’s Italians into leaving, and the region suffered serious depopulation as thousands fled. In response, the Yugoslav government encouraged emigration to Istria from the rest of the country, and today there are a fair number of Serbs, Macedonians, Albanians and Bosnians in Istria, many of whom were attracted to the coast by the tourist industry, which took off in the 1960s and has never looked back.

Istria today

Geographically distant from the main flashpoints of the Serb-Croat conflict, Istria entered the twenty-first century more cosmopolitan, more prosperous and more self-confident than any other region of the country. With locals tending to regard Zagreb as the centre of a tax-hungry state, Istrian particularism is a major political force, with the Istrian Democratic Party (Istarska demokratska stranka, or IDS) consistently winning the lion’s share of the local vote.

One consequence of Istria’s newfound sense of identity has been a reassessment of its often traumatic relationship with Italy, and a positive new attitude towards its cultural and linguistic ties with that country. Bilingual road signs and public notices have gone up all over the place, and the region’s Italian-language schools – increasingly popular with cosmopolitan Croatian parents – are enjoying a new lease of life.

INLAND CROATIA

The jumble of geographical regions that make up inland Croatia seem, on the face of it, to have little in common with one another. Historically, however, the Croats of the interior were united by a set of cultural influences very different from those that prevailed on the coast. After the collapse of the medieval Croatian kingdom in the early part of the twelfth century, inland Croatia fell under the sway of first Hungary, then the Habsburg Empire, increasingly adopting the culture and architecture of Central Europe. This heritage has left its mark: sturdy, pastel-coloured farmhouses dot the countryside, while churches sport onion domes and Gothic spires, providing a sharp contrast with the pale stone houses and Venetian-inspired campaniles of the coast.

The main appeal of inland Croatia lies in its contrasting landscapes. It’s here that the mountain chains that run from the Alps down to the Adriatic meet the Pannonian plain, which stretches all the way from Zagreb to eastern Hungary. The Zagorje region, just north of Zagreb, resembles southern Austria with its knobbly hills and castles, while southwest of Zagreb are the captivating lakes and waterfalls of the Plitvice Lakes. Much less touristed but equally rewarding are the wetlands southeast of the capital, with the Lonjsko polje Nature Park offering a mixture of archaic timber-built villages and birdwatching opportunities. The eastern province of Slavonia features broad expanses of flat, chequered farmland only partially broken up by low green hills. Tucked away in the province’s northeastern corner is the Kopački rit Nature Park, a wildlife-rich wonderland of reedy waterways and sunken forests. It’s in these areas of natural beauty that rural tourism is taking off in a big way, with village B&Bs, folksy restaurants and well-signed cycling routes cropping up in the Zagorje, Plitvice, Lonjsko polje and Kopački rit. Vineyards and wine cellars are a growing feature of tourism too, especially around Ilok in the far southeast.

The region also has worthwhile urban centres, with several well-preserved Baroque towns in which something of the elegance of provincial Habsburg life has survived. The most attractive of these are Varaždin, northeast of Zagreb, and Osijek, a former fortress town in eastern Slavonia.

CROATIA// DUBROVNIK AND AROUND

               

                   A walled, sea-battered city lying at the foot of a grizzled mountain, Dubrovnik is Croatia’s most popular tourist destination, and it’s not difficult to see why. An essentially medieval town reshaped by Baroque planners after a disastrous earthquake of 1667, Dubrovnik’s historic core seems to have been suspended in time ever since. Set-piece churches and public buildings blend seamlessly with the green-shuttered stone houses, forming a perfect ensemble relatively untouched by the twenty-first century. Outside the city walls, suburban Dubrovnik exudes Mediterranean elegance: gardens are an explosion of colourful bougainvillea and oleanders; trees are weighted down with figs, lemons, oranges and peaches.

For the Croats themselves Dubrovnik serves as a powerful metaphor for freedom, having spent much of its history as a self-governing city-state independent of foreign powers. The city played a more than symbolic role in the war of 1991–95, when it successfully resisted a nine-month Serbian-Montenegrin siege. Reconstruction was undertaken with astonishing speed, and the fact that conflict took place here at all only reveals itself through subtle details: the vivid orange-red hues of brand-new roof tiles, or the contrasting shades of grey where damaged facades have been patched up with freshly quarried stone.

The success of Dubrovnik’s tourist industry has brought a certain degree of complacency and self-satisfaction. The city’s museums are the most disappointing of any major Croatian city, and – despite a few honourable exceptions – the local restauranteurs are focused on raising prices rather than culinary horizons. Certain aspects of the city’s appeal remain immune to tourist numbers, however; most notably the uniquely beautiful setting and the unjaded straightforwardness of the Dubrovčani themselves.

Dubrovnik is worth a visit at any time of year, although spring and summer – when life spills out onto the streets and café tables remain packed well into the night – bring out the best in the city. Croatia’s cultural luminaries visit the town during the Dubrovnik Summer Festival in July and August, bringing an added dash of glamour to the streets, while the main event in winter is the Feast of St Blaise on February 3, when the patron saint of the city is honoured by a parade and special mass, followed by much drinking and eating. Be warned though: Dubrovnik’s popularity with cruise liners can lead to big crowds during the day, when the Old Town can resemble a vast theme park-cum-souvenir shop for ship-borne day-trippers. And though Dubrovnik is increasingly an all-year-round destination, note that a good half of the city’s hotels are closed from November through to March, and a lot of restaurants take the whole month of January off.

With a population of a little over 49,000, Dubrovnik isn’t as large as you might think, and although it sprawls along the coast for several kilometres, its real heart is the compact Old Town. Doing the circuit of the city walls is the one Dubrovnik attraction you really can’t miss, and it’s worth doing this early on in order to get the feel of the place. The rest of the Old Town can easily be covered in a day and a half – although once you begin to soak up the atmosphere you’ll find it difficult to pull yourself away. Running above the town to the east is the bare ridge of Mount Srđ, the summit of which provides expansive views of the town and the coast. The best place for swimming and sunbathing is the islet of Lokrum, a short taxi-boat ride from the Old Town.

The main tourist resorts south of Dubrovnik, Župa Dubrovačka and Cavtat, are within easy reach of the city by public transport. In addition, Dubrovnik’s port is the natural gateway to the southernmost islands of the Croatian Adriatic, with the sparsely populated, semi-wild islands of Koločep, Lopud and Šipan providing beach-hoppers with a wealth of out-of-town bathing opportunities. Slightly farther out to sea, the green island of Mljetis one of the most beautiful on the entire coast – you’ll need a day or two to do it justice.

Brief history

Dubrovnik was first settled in the early seventh century by Greco-Roman refugees from the nearby city of Epidauros (now Cavtat), which was sacked by the Slavs. The refugees took up residence in the southern part of what is now the Old Town, then an island known as Laus – a name that later metamorphosed into Ragusa. The Slavs, meanwhile, settled on the mainland opposite, from which the name Dubrovnik (from dubrava, meaning “glade”) comes. Before long the slim channel between the two was filled in and the two sides merged, producing a symbiosis of Latin and Slav cultures unique in the Mediterranean. Ethnically, the city was almost wholly Slav by the fifteenth century, although leading families consistently claimed Roman lineage, and the nobility actively preserved the use of both Latin and Italian in official circles, if not always in everyday speech.

Initially subject to Byzantium, the city came under Venetian control in 1204. The Venetians stayed until 1358, when they were squeezed out of the southern Adriatic by Louis of Hungary. Officially, Dubrovnik became a vassal of the Hungaro-Croatian kingdom, although it effectively became an independent city-state.

The Ragusan Republic

The emergent Ragusan Republic was run by an elected senate – fear of dictatorship meant that the nominal head of state, the Rector (knez), was virtually a figurehead. However, the republic was by no means a democracy: the city’s nobility was the only section of society allowed to vote. Civic peace was ensured by allowing the rest of the citizenry full economic freedom and the chance to grow rich through commerce. Dubrovnik’s network of maritime contacts made it one of the major players in Mediterranean trade, but the key to the city’s wealth was its unrivalled access to the markets of the Balkan hinterland. The Ottoman Empire, having absorbed the kingdoms of both Serbia and Bosnia, granted Dubrovnik this privileged trading position in return for an annual payment. Dubrovnik established a network of trading colonies stretching from the Adriatic to the Black Sea, from where wheat, wool, animal hides – and, for a time, slaves – could be shipped back to the mother republic before being re-exported to the West at a fat profit. As commerce grew, so did the need to protect it, and the republic extended its borders to include the whole of the coast from Konavle in the south to Pelješac in the north, as well as the islands of Mljet and Lastovo.

Culture and diplomacy

Mercantile wealth underpinned an upsurge in culture, producing a fifteenth- and sixteenth-century golden age when the best artists and architects in the Adriatic were drawn to the city. It was during this period that many of the urban landmarks of present-day Dubrovnik were completed: Juraj Dalmatinac and Michelozzo Michelozzi worked on the town walls, Paskoje Miličević drew up plans for the Sponza Palace, and Onofrio della Cava designed the Rector’s Palace, as well as the two fountains that still bear his name.

Suzerainty over Dubrovnik had passed from the Hungaro-Croatian kingdom to the Ottoman Empire by the early sixteenth century, but shrewd diplomacy and the regular payment of tributes ensured that the city-state retained its virtual independence. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Dubrovnik enjoyed the protection of both Spain (Dubrovnik ships sailed with the Armada in 1588) and the papacy, but usually avoided being dragged into explicitly anti-Turkish alliances. In fact, wars between the Ottomans and the West usually led to increased revenues for Dubrovnik, which exploited its position as the only neutral port in the Adriatic.

Decline and fall

Decline set in with the earthquake of 1667, which killed around five thousand people and destroyed many of the city’s buildings. Bandits from the interior looted the ruins, and Kara Mustafa, Pasha of Bosnia, demanded huge tributes in return for keeping the robber bands under control. Kara Mustafa’s death during the Siege of Vienna in 1683 allowed the city the chance to rebuild, producing the elegantly planned rows of Baroque town houses that characterize the centre of the city to this day. However, the Austro-Turkish conflict of 1683–1718 seriously affected Dubrovnik’s inland trade, a blow from which it never really recovered. By the eighteenth century Dubrovnik’s nobility was dying out, and commoners were increasingly elevated to noble rank to make up the numbers; anachronistic feuds between the Sorbonnesi (old patricians) and Salamanchesi (newly elevated patricians, named after the universities of Sorbonne and Salamanca, where many young Ragusans studied) weakened the traditional social fabric still further.

The city-state was formally dissolved by Napoleon in 1808. The French occupation of the city provoked a British naval bombardment, while Russian and Montenegrin forces laid waste to surrounding territories, destroying much of suburban Dubrovnik in the process. In 1815 the Congress of Vienna awarded Dubrovnik to the Austrians, who incorporated the city into the newly formed province of Dalmatia. Political and economic activity was henceforth concentrated in towns such as Zadar and Split, leaving Dubrovnik on the fringes of Adriatic society.

The modern era

The symbolic importance of Dubrovnik long outlived the republic itself. For nineteenth-century Croats the city was a Croatian Athens, a shining example of what could be achieved – both politically and culturally – by the Slav peoples. It was also increasingly a magnet for foreign travellers, who wrote about the city in glowing terms, save for Rebecca West, for whom it was too perfect and self-satisfied: “I do not like it,” she famously wrote. “It reminds me of the worst of England.”

Already a society resort in West’s time, Dubrovnik enhanced its reputation for cultural chic with the inception in 1949 of the Dubrovnik Festival, one of Europe’s most prestigious, while the construction of big hotel complexes in Lapad and Babin kuk to the north, and Župa to the south, helped make Dubrovnik one of the most popular tourist destinations in Yugoslavia in the 1970s and 1980s. After repairing the damage done during the1991–92 siege with remarkable speed, Dubrovnik quickly recovered its position as Croatia’s premier vacation spot.

Religion in Norway

According to Norse mythology there was a great void before the world was created. In this void Midgard appeared. This was where people lived. Right in the centre of Midgard lay Åsgård. This was where the gods lived.

Norse mythology was not based on a religious community. It had more to do with actions than with faith. Human beings worshipped the gods through ceremonies and offerings. It was important to keep the gods happy. There are supposed to have been human sacrifices, but usually it was animals that were sacrificed.

The battle of Stiklestad

The transition from the Norse chieftain society to kingdom and Christendom happened around the year 1000. The battle of Stiklestad in 1030 is considered the turning point. Here Olav Haraldsson fell – he became Saint Olav, Norway’s most important saint. He was buried by Nidelven inTrondheim. Tradition has it that the high Altar of Nidaros Cathedral now stands on the exact spot of this burial site.

Christian Norway belonged to the Roman Catholic church until the reformation of 1537. A prohibition on the Catholic Church was introduced, which was not repealed until 1843.

Religious freedom

Today Norway enjoys religious freedom, but the evangelical Lutheran faith is the official religion. 86% of the population are members of the Church of Norway, which is organised as a state church.

However, we can see increasing religious and lifestyle diversity, with tolerance and openness in the greater part of the population. Islam is an example. Scandinavia’s largest mosque is in Grønland in Oslo.

48 hours in Milan

Pin this imageMilan's magnificent Duomo. Image by Dennis Matheson / CC BY-SA 2.0.

News flash: Italy was not cryogenically frozen six centuries ago, and Milan is the pulse-quickening proof. After all, visitors flock here not only for La Scala opening nights and Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper, but also for spring and fall fashion weeks, chic designer showrooms and modern art fairs. Modern Milanese are audacious, industrious daydreamers. So why not jump in and join them in their intoxicating round of pursuits, be that precision shopping, browsing modern art galleries or downing an expertly mixed Negroni.

Day 1: Something old and something new

A morning view of the Duomo

Five hundred years in the making, Milan’s magnificent gothic cathedral sublimely dominates the city’s central piazza. No matter how many times you see it, its pearly white facade of petrified pinnacles elicits a little gasp of awe. Head up to the roof for a heavenly view of its spires and a vertigo-inducing perspective of the piazza with the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Europe’s oldest shopping mall, to your right and the Royal Palace to your left.

Then swap old for new next door in Milan’s modernist showcase, the Museo del Novecento. As you rise up the spiral ramp through 20th-century neo-impressionists, futurists, surrealists and spatialists, you can trace the story of the city through fascism, two World Wars and the dawn of the technological era.

Lunch with the locals

If you’re dazzled by the panoramic floor-to-ceiling views of the Duomo’s statuary from the Museo del Novecento, you can contemplate them further in its art deco bistro, Giacomo Arengario. But you won’t find many Milanese here outside cocktail hour. To lunch with locals wander out into the network of alleys around the Duomo. Traditionalists seeking superlative saffron risotto should head to Peck Italian Bar, the restaurant affiliated to the city’s best delicatessen. Or, if you’re feeling sociable, take a pew at the canteen tables in da Pino and order up bowls of bollito misto (mixed boiled meats).

Pin this imageShopping on glamorous Via Montenapoleone. Image by slayer / CC BY 2.0.

An afternoon of shopping and aristocrats

Via Montenapoleone, or 'Montenapo', is the most famous street in Milan’s Quadrilatero d’Oro (Golden Quad). Bo Derek must have been thinking of it when she quipped, ‘Whoever said money can’t buy happiness simply didn’t know where to go shopping’. Here, between Gucci, Pucci and Prada, tomorrow’s trendsetters offer a sidewalk scene that makes Milan’s Fashion Week runways seem entirely redundant.

For those immune to the siren song of the shops, retreat to the refined interiors Milan’s house museums (www.casemuseomilano.it): the Renaissance fantasy palace of the Bagatti Valsecchi, the historically-themed apartment of Poldi Pezzoli, and the modernist haute-bourgeoisie home of a sewing-machine tycoon, the Villa Necchi Campiglio.

Pin this imageAperitivo time! Image by Fabio / CC BY-SA 2.0.

Evening aperitivo

The early evening tradition of aperitivo is sacred in Milan. Come 6pm, bars all over town bring out platters of crostini, sushi, pasta, focaccia and smoked salmon. The offerings range from simple to exotic as bars compete for critical tastebuds. In the Quad, chic (and expensive) spots include the Piano Bar at the Four Seasons Hotel, the secluded gardens of the Bulgari Hotel, and Martini Bar, a collaboration between Martini and the Dolce & Gabana boys.

The best rooftops terraces are those at the ultra-contemporary Hotel Boscolo (www.boscolohotels.com), Ceresio 7 (www.ceresio7.com) and La Terrazza (www.laterrazzadiviapalestro.com), overlooking the public gardens. But for hipsters and cocktail aficionados the only place to go is Navigli, where rowdy crowds spill out along the city’s canals and Rebelot (www.rebelotdelpont.com) and Bar Rita (Via Angelo Fumagalli 1) mix the best drinks in the city.

Pin this imageA performance at La Scala. Image by MITO SettembreMusica / CC BY 2.0.

A night of culture

Opera and theatre aficionados should make a beeline for La Scala’s gilt-edged palchi (private boxes) or the risky little repertory theatre Piccolo Teatro.

But beyond the grandeur of the historic centre Milanese students and creatives are remaking the image of this bourgeoisie city. Decorated with graffiti, Leoncavallo (www.leoncavallo.org) claims to be Europe’s largest anti-capitalist, creative squat, offering jazz evenings, debates and alternative theatre. Less provocative and colourful, the Fabbrica del Vapore (www.fdvlab.org) puts on avant-garde performances, exhibitions and weekend workshops.

Pin this imageGraffiti at Leoncavallo. Image by opethpainter / CC BY 2.0.

Day 2: Saints, science and the Last Supper

A morning of science and saints

It’s usually da Vinci’s Last Supper or the basilica of Saint Ambrogio that draws visitors away from the Duomo, but Milan’s superlative Science Museum reminds us that Leonardo would rather have been remembered as an engineer instead of a painter. Models of his proto-helicopters, catapults and cannons are displayed here alongside halls devoted to astronomy and horology, and hangars housing steam trains, planes and full-sized galleons.

Afterwards, grab a quick coffee at Biffi or Bar Magenta and toss a coin for your next stop: the golden sky mosaic and mummy of Saint Ambrogio at the eponymous basilica, or Bernardino Luini’s heavenly frescoes in the Chiesa di San Maurizio.

Pin this imageFrescoes in the Chiesa di San Maurizio. Image by Andrew Smith / CC BY-SA 2.0.

Al fresco lunch in the park

By now you’ll have circled the turreted Sforza castle several times. Behind it, Parco Sempione, the green lung of the city spreads northwards to Napoleon’s ironically named Arch of Peace. The park was originally the hunting grounds of the Sforza dukes before the French mooted the idea of a public park in 1891. It was a resounding success and today Milanese of all ages come to enjoy its winding paths and shady copses. Grab a panino at one of the park bars or head to the bright white cafe of the Triennale Design Museum, which overlooks the greenery.

Pin this imageView towards the Arco della Pace in Parco Sempione. Image by Dzhingarova / CC BY 2.0.

An alternative afternoon

In front of the castle catch vintage tram #1 and trundle south on its wooden benches to the neighbourhood of Navigli. Here, Milan’s medieval network of canals rise to the surface and are lined with bookshops, boutiques and bars. As the most fashionable Bohemian ‘burb in the city, Navigli is home to thriving community of artists and musicians making this a great place to stroll and shop.

Further west, over the railway tracks near Porta Genova, you’ll find edgier trends along Via Tortona and Via Savona. You may be tempted to stay on into the night in the leafy courtyard of Al Fresco (www.alfrescomilano.it).

Pin this imageThe Navigli canal district. Image by Irene Grassi / CC BY-SA 2.0.

The Last Supper

Before you leave, you owe it to yourself to indulge in two last suppers, starting with da Vinci’s Il Cenacolo. Prebook an evening or nighttime tour (www.tickitaly.com) and you’ll be guided through air-locked rooms to the golden glow of the refectory where Christ reveals to gasping disciples that one among them will betray him. So outstandingly good was Leonardo’s composition that it swept away the efforts of even the greatest masters before him, but his choice of oil paint was flawed. With over 80% of the original colour lost and the process of deterioration irreversible this isn’t a masterpiece to miss.

Nor is a Michelin-starred dinner at Il Luogo di Aimo e Nadia (www.aimoenadia.com), where chefs Fabio Pisani and Alessandro Negrini conjure culinary high art from even the simplest ingredients.